Here is a draft of a paper that I am preparing for publication. It is very long, but would appreciate any comments. If you need a hard copy just let me know.
Since the death of Frank Zappa in 1993, there has been an ongoing legal battle between the Zappa Family Trust (ZFT) and the so called ‘tribute bands’ that are determined to continue translating his music through live and recorded mediums. It could be argued that these ensembles effectively not only pay direct homage to Zappa’s legacy by interpreting his music in numerous innovative ways, but also keep his memory alive by interfacing with both his long standing audience, and with a younger generation who may not be aware of his music. The most famous of the rock based ensembles is entitled Zappa Plays Zappa and has the unusual credit of being ‘legally’ sanctified to perform his music live. This legality is no coincidence, as the band is headed by Zappa’s eldest son Dweezil and features the ‘Vault Master’ responsible for compiling the legal recordings heralding from the ZFT – Joe Travers on drums. After outlining the means through which Zappa consistently translated and adapted his own and other composers’ work over his 27 years in the public eye, this paper will explore how and why such a diverse range of bands and ensembles are so intent on continuing to experiment with his music, despite the legal challenges outlined above. This paper will subsequently examine the various philosophical, legal and industrial factors behind why the ZFT, an organization who have contributed so much to Zappa’s legacy over the last 15 years, seem intent on selectively prohibiting recorded and in particular live performance of his music, followed by a conclusory discussion of the cultural impact of this stance in the light of the supreme irony that Zappa was himself someone who ‘borrowed heavily’ from his diverse influences such as Surf Music, Do Wop and Chicago Blues, in addition to ‘serious’ composers such as Stravinsky, Stockhausen and his childhood hero – Edgard Varèse.
Introduction: How Zappa Adapted and Appropriated Both His Own and Other Composers’ Music
By the time of his untimely Death in 1993 at the age of 52, Frank Zappa had already compiled over 57 ‘official’ albums in the 27 year period between his inaugural recording Freak Out [1] and his epitaph – Civilization Phase III (1993).[2] This figure does not include the numerous official and unofficial bootleg recordings that have saturated the market, many of which continue to be released by the ZFT Vaulternative and Zappa labels[3]. Zappa’s extraordinary creative output is equally matched by incredible stylistic diversity, with many of his albums containing influences as eclectic as rock, jazz, neo classical, do – wop, reggae and musique concrete, etc. Although Zappa’s portfolio has to be considered one of the most ‘original’ in the Rock canon, it is apparent that he consciously and freely incorporated elements of his own and more importantly other composers’ music throughout his career, in both live and recorded environments. In a philosophical gesture he self entitled ‘The Big Note’, he commented as early as 1968
All the material in the albums is organically related and if I had all the master tapes and I could take a razor blade and cut them apart and put it together again in a different order, it still would make one piece of music you can listen too.[4]
This borrowing process continued throughout Zappa’s career, where he would refer to his earlier works in a variety of explicit and subliminal ways, at times actually including previously recorded materials into new compositions. When commenting on what could be regarded as a self plagiarist process he stated
When a novelist invents a character. If the character is a good one, he takes on a life of his own. Why should he get to go to only one party? [5]
This analogy is an interesting one, as this process was consistently incorporated in the numerous translations/re arrangements he made of his work. Indeed Zappa developed the terminology ‘Object’ and ‘Project’ when attempting to differentiate between the completed work of art and the constant processes he used to redefine it. These ‘conceptual continuity’ gestures were not only used to translate and evolve innovative new recorded music, but can also be found adapted throughout his entire creative output, ranging from album covers, to videos, to films, to live performance. Examples of this process range from the pervasive incorporation of Patricia The Dog on album covers such as Them or Us,[6] Francesco Zappa,[7] and The Perfect Stranger,[8] which are all essentially artistic adaptations of characters portrayed in compositions like ‘Dirty Love’,[9] ‘Stinkfoot’,[10] ‘The Poodle Lecture’ [11] and ‘Cheepnis’.[12] This ‘canine conceptual continuity’ is also mirrored with other pervasive thematic areas such as
Vegetables,[13] religion,[14] politics[15] and sex,[16] gestures that assist the unified idiolect of Zappa’s life’s work. The techniques Zappa incorporated to translate his musical ideas included simply replacing specific instruments and remixing factors he was unhappy with. For example Cruising With Ruben and Jets [17] and We’re Only In It For The Money [18] were both remixed in 1984 and 1986 respectively to include new bass, percussion and in the case of the former, vocal parts. Although these new works were often not popular with Zappa’s fans, the original recordings are problematic to find, indeed becoming rare collectors items until recent technology assisted greater access via peer to peer servers. Obviously recognizing that the source text is potentially considered more authentic by many fans recently prompted the ZFT to release a 40th anniversary edition of Zappa’s first album Freak Out (1966),[19] closely followed by 40th anniversary versions of We’re Only In It For the Money (1968) and Lumpy Gravy (1968).[20] Zappa was also an advocate of skillfully using studio technology to synchronically remix the best elements of live performances of his music compiled over many years. The most pervasive examples of this process can be found on the ironically entitled six part You Can’t Do That On Stage Anymore series (1988 – 1992), but can be found on earlier recordings such as the ‘King Kong’ variations [21] (Uncle Meat 1969) and “Little House I Used To Live In” (Burnt Weeny Sandwich 1970).[22] These recordings were essentially an opportunity for Zappa to display both his studio skills and his allegiance to conceptual continuity[23] by combining the best parts of live and studio portfolios to date, effectively producing a utopian ‘live’ performance that transcended both time and space. Regarding the You Can’t Do That On Stage Anymore series, Zappa was explicit that these performances were “not chronological” and proceeded to confirm that “any band from any year can be (and often is) edited to the performance of any other band from any other year – sometimes in the middle of a song”. [24] In addition to Zappa’s use of these diachronic vertical based studio techniques to develop virtual performances, he also employed a more synchronic based methodology that he entitled xenochrony.[25] This technique was incorporated to horizontally fuse often unrelated instrument tracks from otherwise incongruent recordings. Perhaps the most well known implementation of xenochrony can be heard on Joe’s Garage, [26] where all of the guitar solos aside from ‘Watermelon in Easter Hay’ are transported from other recordings. After initially experimenting with the technique on ‘The Blimp’ when producing Captain Beefheart’s Trout Mask Replica,[27] this technique was to become a pervasive device to formulate and translate his performances. Zappa was known to prefer both the sound of his guitar and his actual performance when playing live, and this is probably the reason why he incorporated the technique so freely on Joe’s Garage. However, he was obviously also interested in the means by which virtual performances could be engineered to produce results not possible by placing musicians in the same space and time. An indicative example of this is the polyrhythmic interplay between Terry Bozzio (drums) and Patrick O’Hearn (bass) on the track ‘Rubber Shirt’.[28] Close examination reveals that the conversation taking place between the two instrumentalists is indeed fabricated by Zappa superimposing a common time bass part recorded live in Gothenburg, Sweden with studio drums based on a 11/4 time signature. The interplay is a fascinating example of two musicians communicating simultaneously over the boundaries of time and space, quoting Zappa – ‘all of the sensitive, interesting interplay between the bass and drums never actually happened…’.[29] This ‘happening’ of course does occur in the mind of the listener, who would find it impossible to ascertain how the artistic results were encouraged if not for Zappa’s transparency. Another dimension of this practice can be found on ‘Friendly Little Finger’ [30] where Zappa combines a basic guitar and bass track from an improvised solo recorded at Hofstra University in 1975 with drums derived from ‘The Ocean Is The Ultimate Solution’.[31] Interestingly, this recording ends with a chorus of the traditional hymn Bringing In The Sheaves [32], and as discussed later serves as an indicative example of Zappa not only translating his own work, but that of others.
In addition to contextualizing his portfolio in time and space with individual xenochronic tracks, artistic adaptations of songs, pervasive thematic subject matters, and compiled cuts of specific performances, Zappa also regularly refined his compositions on a more musicological level as part of the object/project philosophy. Indeed his portfolio is littered with examples of compositions progressively developing over the entire time he recorded music. Although precise detail of this practice is beyond the scope of this paper, the examples below are intended to portray his wider philosophy. ‘Bogus Pomp’ [33] is an indicative example of a piece that kept the same title but developed musically over time, – amalgamating transcribed elements from The Mothers Of Invention’s 1968 concert at the Royal Albert Hall,[34] numerous selected pieces from his controversial film – 200 motels (1971),[35] and the ‘Holiday in Berlin, Full Blown’ motif from Burnt Weeny Sandwich.[36] Prior to the London Symphony Orchestra recording, the piece was also recorded as ‘Bogus Pomp’ on Orchestral Favorites,[37] but in much shortened format and without the first three sections of the later more mature version. A similar process can also be found in numerous other pieces such as ‘Duke Of Prunes’[38] and “Greggery Peckary”[39], with pieces such as “A Pound For A Brown On The Bus” and “Legend Of The Golden Arches” from Uncle Meat [40] being obvious variations on the same melodic, rhythmic and harmonic material. Indeed the compositional material of the latter is noted by Zappa as dating back to 1957 or 58 when he graduated from high school. Originally written for string quartet, he believed it to be “played by just about every one of the touring bands in one version or another”.[41] Close examination reveals that the material[42] is recorded on numerous albums post Uncle Meat, including early recordings featured on You Can’t Do That On Stage Anymore Vol. 5,[43] Electric Aunt Jemima,[44] and Ahead Of Their Time, [45] through to later versions on Zappa In New York (1976), You Can’t Do That On Stage Anymore Vol.4 [46] and The Yellow Shark. [47] Although Zappa does not provide a reason for the name change outlined above, like many of his pieces the work provides an anthropological account of his band’s exploits on the road, this time programmatically depicting a bet between Jimmy Carl Black and Bunk Gardiner regarding the formers intention to ‘moon’ through the window of the touring bus while on tour in London. It is proposed that the title change more accurately depicts both the West Coast cultural heritage of this activity[48] with a more universally accepted synecdoche of England.[49] This process of refining the ‘project’ by incorporating elements of earlier ‘objects’ to form more mature works includes both studio technology and live rearrangements of this material, and Zappa’s pervasive use of this methodology unquestionably verifies David Walley’s assertion that he was the “ultimate cut and paste man”.[50]
As indicated above, Zappa would often refer to earlier works simply for practical reasons, and at other times utilize conceptual continuity as an opportunity to make a more profound statement. ‘Catholic Girls’ from Joe’s Garage is an indicative example of how he sarcastically attacked the establishment for earlier confrontations by inserting (at 3.17) the melodic line from the highly controversial ‘Jewish Princess’. [51] This conceptual continuity cue evokes an ironic nod toward the only piece in Zappa’s portfolio ever to attract an official complaint (From the Anti Defamation League). Most importantly, this gesture is a clear example of Zappa implementing his first amendment rights, and this is a pervasive factor throughout his entire canon, accentuating the irony of the prohibitive stance the ZFT are taking regarding other musicians who want to do the same. In the same song Zappa refers more subliminally to examples of music from outside his canon, by referring to Frank Sinatra’s ‘All The Way’ (00.45 and 2.27), ‘Calabrian Tarrentella’ (3.22 and 3.30) and ‘La donna è mobile’ (from Verdi’s Rigoletto) (3.43). The insertion of these quotations are very frivolous in nature, essentially distorting the texts original meaning from serious to humorous, and in the case of the latter from high culture to low comedy. This plagiaristic practice was something practiced regularly on many other occasions, and it was not unusual for Zappa to either subliminally place other composers’ music in his work, or accentuate the ‘light entertainment’ of otherwise series pieces by superimposing frivolity over the original text. Examples of the former include quotations of Stravinsky,[52] in Amnestia Vivace [53] Soft Cell Conclusion,[54] Status Back Baby [55] and Fountain Of Love,[56] and Holst in Invocation & Ritual Dance of the Young Pumpkin.[57] This subliminal referencing is sometimes not musical in nature but as seen above and in works such as ‘Prelude to the Afternoon of a Sexually Aroused Gas Mask’,[58] can be purely textual. This lowering of the perceived high culture of such works is perhaps accentuated more on pieces such as ‘Mozart Ballet, [59] when Ian Underwood performs the great composer’s piano sonata in Bb, while the rest of Zappa’s band performs a ‘grotesque parody of the art of ballet dancing’. The audience plainly find the band’s physical and verbal antics amusing, with Don Preston assuming the mad scientist “Dom Dewild” guise that can also be found on The Mothers Of Invention 1968 performance at The Royal Albert Hall and the Uncle Meat film.[60] Aside from Sinatra’s ‘All The Way’[61], all of these cross references are of course legal, as the copyright on these works have long since expired. However, Zappa’s inclusion of more popular music related texts in his work such as ‘Sheery’ by The Four Seasons [62] and the pervasive ‘Louie Louie’[63] does indicate that avoiding litigation was not high on his agenda. Indeed Zappa was quoting music from the popular music canon well before the formation of the Mothers Of Invention, with pieces such as Brian Lord and the Midnighters ‘The Big Surfer’ and The Penguins ‘Memories Of Del Monte’ [64] quoting ‘Yankie Doodle Went To Town’ and ‘I Wish I Was In Dixie’ [65] in the former, and the latter cross referencing Earth Angel (When Will You Be Mine’ [66] and ‘Nite Owl’. [67] When the comedic intentions of Zappa’s work is taken into account it is apparent that he can be considered as part of a novelty music tradition, with artists such as Victor Borge and Allan Sherman [68] both humorously distorting classical music in light hearted ways. Although he does not quote him as an influence, Borge’s approach in particular resonates with Zappa’s, utilizing ‘audience participation activities, [69] stage antics and humorous narrative [70] all while performing pieces such as Liszt’s ‘Leibestraum’,[71] Pastiches of Mozart Opera’s[72] and discussing the uses of Chopin’s ‘Minute Waltz as an egg timer. [73] Zappa does quote American satirist Spike Jones as a major influence,[74] and in addition to the combination of brilliant musicianship and cutting humor it appears that the pervasive Zappa ‘snort’ which appears throughout his portfolio on pieces such as ‘Lonely Little Girl’, ‘Idiot Bastard Son’,[75] “Moggio”,[76] ‘You’re Just Insulting Me, Aren’t You?’ and ‘Cold Light Generation’[77] was originally implemented on Spike Jones pieces such as ‘Old Black Magic’ and ‘Blue Danube’.[78] Indeed this sound can also be found on his pre Mothers of Invention work, with pieces such as ‘How’s Your Bird’ and ‘Letters From Jeepers’ both including the timbre.[79] Although the influence can not be directly attributed to Jones, Zappa’s tendency to instruct his brass and woodwind players to incorporate an exaggerated tone adds to the humorous dimension of Zappa’s music, with pieces such as ‘Holiday in Berlin Fully Blown’[80] and ‘Cletus Awreetus Awrightus’[81] having close parallels to Jones, in addition to later comedy pieces such as ‘Shaving Cream’[82] and ‘Charley Brown’[83]. Indeed Zappa’s association to the novelty music tradition can not be questioned when comparing pieces such as ‘Brotherly Love’[84] and ‘The Adventures of Greggery Peccary’[85] to ‘Mother in Law’[86] and ‘Witch Doctor’[87] respectively.
It is important to verify that Zappa’s influences were not only founded on musical foundations, but close scrutiny of his theatrical characters such as the narrator in Thing Fish [88] reveals not only a similar name to Kingfish from the long running Amos and Andy American sitcom (1928 – 1960), but also an almost identical vocal timbre. In the same work the Mammy Nuns could also be regarded as a satire of the characters in Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein’s The Sound of Music (1959), while ‘Harry and Rhonda’ can be heard to fulfill a similar function to Brad and Janet in Richard O’Brien’s The Rocky Horror Show (1973).[89] It is also worth noting that Thing Fish incorporates a range of ‘backing tracks’ from Zappa’s back or future catalogue, and essentially adapts them into a different medium.[90] As outlined by Jones,[91] this practice is pervasive in Reggae music, and the fact that Zappa entitles the pieces differently seems to be indicative of his mindset – these pieces are apparently considered independent works of art, incongruent from their original source, despite the obvious similarities.
All of these examples are examples of Zappa’s reliance on the re-use of material from both his own and others’ catalogues in a range of innovative ways. As outlined by Carr and Hand, the practice of self plagiarism ‘is in fact continuing a long tradition established by composers such as Monteverdi, (incorporating material from L’Orfeo in the 1610 Vespers) and Prokoviev, whose 3rd Symphony is heavily influenced by his opera Fiery Angel.’[92] It is proposed that Zappa is not only influenced by a vast array of identifiable cultural signifiers, but that without the unrestricted access to these influences his highly original idiolect he was to formulate would not have emerged. The next section of this paper will attempt to rationalize the creative ideologies of a selected sample of key musicians involved in arranging and performing Zappa’s music. This will be followed by a philosophical and legal analysis of the ZFT stance on copyright that contextualizes the practices of tribute bands with that of Zappa, in addition to influential postmodern writings.
How And Why Do Tribute Bands And Ensembles Translate Zappa’s Live And Recorded Work?
As outlined above, Zappa was a keen protagonist of linking his current ‘projects’ with past ‘objects’, and some of the tribute[93] bands featuring ex Zappa musicians in particular appear to be a perfect representation of his pervasively used conceptual continuity. This paradigm is apparent in ensembles such as Bogus Pomp[94], The Grandmothers,[95] The Muffin Men,[96] Object/Project,[97] Ugly Radio Rebellion[98] and Banned From Utopia,[99] all of which feature ex Zappa alumni,[100] and this select group is complemented by many other bands and ensembles that are determined to perform Zappa’s music in both live and recorded mediums. International artists such as the Ed Palermo Big Band, Ensemble Ambrosius, Sex Without Nails Bros, Sheik Yerbouti, The Harmonica Ensemble, Le Concert Improptu, Le Bocal, The Median Arts Ensemble and The Omnibus Wind Ensemble and numerous others have all assisted prolonging Zappa’s legacy by performing and recording his complex music with great aplomb, and in some cases actually continuing to progressively develop the stylistic potentials of specific works in a way congruent to Zappa himself. It is interesting how ensembles such as The Omnibus Wind Ensemble, [101] Ensemble Ambrosius,[102] Le Concert Impromptu [103] actually accentuates the classical factors of his music by arranging for combinations of instruments Zappa did not consider. Indeed the Swedish based Omnibus Wind Ensemble has not only dedicated entire albums to Zappa, but placed him alongside mainstream classical composers such as Mozart, and Rossini,[104] in effect further strengthening his position as a serious composer. Evidence suggests that Zappa always considered himself a composer, and used popular music mechanisms as a means to establish himself, sell records and make his live performances more appealing to a wider demographic. When commenting upon the classical influences in his early work, we commented ‘Stravinsky in rock n’ roll is like a get-acquainted offer… It’s a gradual progression to bring in my own ‘serious’ music’.[105] Conversely, American based Ed Palermo accentuates what Zappa described as ‘The Music of Unemployment’[106] – Jazz. When speaking to based Palermo, it is clear that one of his principle objectives when transcribing and recording Zappa’s music for big band is to perpetuate an original dimension to his music. He commented
It was never my intention to replicate a Zappa performance, whether a live performance or recorded. I’m more interested in doing songs that he rarely played live and putting my own stamp on it. Why reinvent the wheel?[107]
Palermo’s approach seems to differentiate clearly between remaining faithful to Zappa’s compositions, but as opposed to attempting pastiches of his work, enjoying the flexibility to create original arrangements, he continued
I’ve found that the closer a chart of mine is to the original, the less exciting it is. My biggest artistic successes are the tunes that stray the furthest from Frank’s versions. This doesn’t mean they are unrecognizable. It’s very important that the tunes bare a great resemblance to the original so the listener knows it’s a Zappa tune. But the arrangement has to be different for it to be fresh [108]
This philosophy is congruent to Hendrix tribute act The Hamsters, whose leader Barry Martin firmly confirms that the band ‘never set out to re-create Hendrix’[109], and is clearly apparent in a number of Palermo arrangements such as ‘Toads Of the New Forest’ and ‘Twenty Small Cigars’,[110] both of which accentuate the swing/jazz elements which are not prevalent in the original compositions. It is also interesting how these pieces include improvisations based on harmonic changes, a protocol Zappa rarely attempted himself, preferring to solo over simple vamps on guitar. In addition to musical factors traditionally associated with Jazz, Palermo also experiments inventively with other paradigms, such as an R&B introduction and ending to ‘Echidna’s Arf’,[111] an arrangement which goes through a variety of rhythmic and textural translations not previously associated with the composition, and also a swing version of ‘Night School’,[112] a piece that Zappa only previously recorded on synclavier.[113]
This balance of remaining faithful to the original and having the artistic license to translate a work into a new style was also elaborated on by Olli Virtaperko from Finish based Ensemble Ambrosius. When questioned, he stated
Even if our machinery – a baroque ensemble – demanded different approaches to many musical questions, we tried to stay faithful to the original ideas and aesthetic demands of [the] music itself. So, we needed to figure out which elements were essential in each composition; what must not be changed and what, in contrary, actually needed to be changed in order to achieve the most idiomatic sounding result with the forces in hand[114]
Like Palermo, Virtaperko differentiates clearly between the delicate balance of compositional integrity and the autonomy of the arranger. To quote Homani enacting ‘some sort of kinship with the original’[115] In order to accommodate Zappa’s compositional intent with the authenticity of a baroque ensemble, alterations that ‘needed to incur’ include key,[116] Tempo,[117] duration[118] and specific instrumental roles. Regarding the latter, it is particularly interesting how the harpsichord is used as a rhythmic pulse in pieces such as ‘Night School’ and ‘Black Page #2’, creatively and idiomatically filing what would be noticeable gaps in the music’s texture due to the omission of drum set. Genre specific stylistic factors such as the incorporation of basso continuo throughout the album also provides additional authenticity, a factor that Virtaperko believes is congruent to the flexible harmonic practices in popular music. This liaison between traditions is also prevalent on the Ensemble Ambrosius version of ‘Big Swifty’, which attempts to cross reference the swing quavers of the jazz tradition to similar practices employed in French Baroque.[119] The Ensemble Ambrosius website provides further evidence regarding the rationale behind the selection of pieces, indicating that works that emphasize lyrics, are dominated by Zappa’s personality, too improvisational in nature, or based unequivocally on popular music instrumentation were deemed not suitable for transcription.[120] However, although Zappa’s personality is indeed problematic to replicate, attempts are made to capture his humorous spirit throughout ‘Inca Roads’, with in addition to the humor inherent in the composition itself, consists of a number of comedic performance practices such as instrumental tone and the false ending.[121]
Unlike ensembles such as Ensemble Ambrosius, Ed Palermo and the Omnibus Wind Ensemble who emphasise the various stylistic dimensions that are possible in Zappa’s music, German based Sheik Yerbouti are indicative of numerous bands that focus on a Rock based approach that is more stylistically aligned to Zappa’s. Despite the stylistic similarity, their guitarist Jörg Heuser reiterated how important this constant development of Zappa’s music appeared to be for Zappa himself. Rationalizing his own group’s approach to Zappa’s music, he stated
Zappa rarely played a song the same way twice, simply because he had other musicians and they played it differently, and he allowed it because he knew that the strength of each musician will enhance his tunes and make it more interesting (for everybody). So we know what we can play well (stylistically) and so we do it the way we think it is appropriate and best – and at the same time we are trying to put the music in a contemporary context, too[122]
Austrian based Sex Without Nails Bros’[123] Jil Y Creek considered her band performed the music ‘very authentically’, but ‘adopted for the instrumentation’ of the band. She continued
For example, as we don’t have any brass players, other instruments take over. Some parts are also a bit modernized. For example we use 7 string guitars for some songs (Dirty Love). And of course the solos are of individual style [124]
Zappa concurred with these perspectives in 1975 when interviewed by Mary Travers[125].
Discussing the changes to a song between the time of writing and its performance, he commented
Sure, it’s supposed to, because the music is being played by people and the chances are that if the song stays in our repertoire for more than a year its going to be played by two, maybe three different bands, and every time you get a different musician he has various assets and liabilities that all have to be taken into account when he is performing. So the part that one musician might have played on a former version of a specific tune has to be either upgraded or downgraded in terms of technical complexity just to keep that new musician happy. If you give a guy a part that’s too easy he will get board, if it’s too hard it won’t come out right. So you have to tailor the part to fit the guy[126].
When questioned further, Zappa also rationalizes the impact of various instrumental line ups and audiences have on an arrangement of a song
Not only do I have different interpretations by different groups, I have interpretations that vary night after night depending on what the audience is into, and different settings for specific texts depending on what the instrumentation would have been because the instrumentation changes all the time too.[127]
Although Zappa is certainly not condoning other musicians to perform his music, he is clearly accepting how various musicians, groups, instruments and audiences have a positive impact on a work of art, by acting as symbiotic translators of his music. It is noticeable how Zappa seems to portray an Ellingtonian approach to music arrangement at times, by using the idiosyncratic talents of his musicians to add multi textual dimensions to specific songs, and this approach appears congruent to what many tribute artists are attempting. It is important to remember that Zappa began his popular music career performing in The Soul Giants, an R & B cover band, and it is deeply ironic that the reason so many ex Zappa sidemen are having to perform so pervasively today is partially due to Zappa’s tight control on copyright. This practice has close parallels to the way many American jazz musicians performed at local venues throughout Europe[128], often with local musicians. As discussed below, these practices are important culturally as they encourage the interface of established artists with local communities of musicians and audiences. The impact of these cultural practices will now be considered, in particular the tribute bands’ position as an authentic post modern phenomenon, the philosophical importance of live performance, and the ways in which many musicians’ involved in this process are continuing the working practices established by Zappa himself.
The Relationship OF Tribute Acts To Postmodernism And The Part They Play In Continuing Zappa’s Legacy
The bands currently performing Zappa’s music today are to quote Homan ‘a remembrance of a remembrance’,[129] effectively an abstract artifact of the postmodern world. According to Baudrillard, postmodernism is a simulated experience, in which artifacts such as great works of art, historical sites, specific locations and in some religions even God himself are experienced as simulacrums[130] through the mediums of television, computer games, books, advertising, newspaper articles etc. These simulations are seen to dominate our experience so profoundly that the represented artifacts are detached from their original connotation, in what Baudrillard describes as ‘an implosion of meaning ’,[131] forming ‘cultural bric a brac’, were ‘old images [are] recycled and reintroduced into circulation as pastiche’.[132] This cultural preference for pastiche is referred to by scholars such as Waters,[133] Cooke[134] and Kaplin,[135] who are all influenced by Jameson’s work on postmodernism?[136] Baudrillard regarded this blurring of the boundaries between the real and what he entitles the hyperreal [137] as resulting in a much weakened connection between reality and representation, producing a culture which reprocesses images and texts from the past against the modern world, with no discernable difference between past and present, real and represented, or image and object. Indeed a key indicator of postmodernism is perceived to be the dominance of image over the original object in what Smith describes as a simultaneous ‘commodity and currency in circulation within the self-referential operations of the consumer code’. [138] Lash concurs with this perspective, stating that we are ‘living in a society in which our perception is directed almost as often by representations, as it is to reality’ and our perceptions of reality ‘becomes to be increasingly by means of these representations’.[139] As indicated earlier, Zappa’s compositional practices strongly resonate with these philosophies, and the various ensembles that perform Zappa’s music exist within this context. If the above arguments are correct, tribute bands and ensembles represent not only a referral to the original, but are the source texts for many consumers. Since Zappa’s death this is particularly true for live performance, with the annual Zappanale music festival in Bad Doberan Germany being of particular relevance. Now in its 20th year despite countless litigation claims from the ZFT, the festival acts as a meeting place for the Zappa community, and involves many ex Zappa musicians, tribute ensembles, speakers and groups who have appropriated Zappa’s influence such as Gong, Doot and Wrong Object.[140] The Zappanale Festival and the relatively small number of other performances that occur in various parts of the world enables fans to experience the Zappa canon through a medium that would otherwise be lost – live performance. When discussing the ‘need’ for audiences to see ‘pop musicians doing something’[141], Frith believes live performance serves three functions for audiences
‘First, it provides visual pleasure on an abstract level (the display of the body, the spectacle of special effects, etc); second, it serves to authenticate musical competence; and third, it offers us the consumption of a star presence, an aura’[142]
Frith has borrowed the term ‘Aura’ from Walter Benjamin, who discussed in 1936 how it ‘withered’ during the early age of mechanical preproduction,[143] a point that is refuted by Zac, who believes modern record production heralded a ‘transfer of aura’, where the true idiolect of an artist in the age of mass production is found in recordings.[144] If both of these perspectives are accepted, then the means through which the public accesses Zappa’s recorded output is authenticated, but his performances are not. Given the fact that Zappa clearly differentiated between the recording[145] and the composition itself,[146] it is essential that this process is safeguarded, regardless of whether the aura of the ‘star presence’ derives from ZPZ or one of the many ex Zappa sidemen performing his music.
Although ZPZ are regarded by the ZFT as the only authentic Zappa band, proudly displaying their pervasive ‘Accept No Substitutes’ logo on concert posters and web site, this is refutable when contextualized with the influence of post modernism as discussed above, so it is proposed that a great many of these tribute ensembles have the potential to be authentic to some audiences.
In some respects, a tribute performance is similar to the technological and performance innovations that Zappa made when sampling and referencing other musicians’ music. However, although Zappa became the source text for many of his influences outlined earlier, as evidenced by many fans’ obsession with conceptual continuity, this can eventually lead to an exploration of where these complex influences derived, and an appreciation of the original artist. Florida based Jerry Outlaw who leads one of the most long-standing tribute acts in America, Bogus Pomp, discussed the positive impact this can have on both the heritage of the artist, he stated
In performing the music with the level of total love and respect that we do, we have shown lots of new listeners and young people that there is something in this music for them to love. Lots and I mean LOTS of people have purchased LOTS of Zappa CDs because they saw or heard Bogus Pomp play Frank’s music [147]
Interestingly, many of the tribute acts observed during this research make no attempt to look like Zappa, but focus upon either accurate adaptations of his recorded output, or innovative appropriations. Ironically, Dweezil Zappa was the only musician observed who seemed to emulate his father’s stage persona, intentionally or not. He not only has a close physical resemblance, but also has a similar stance and vocal delivery when speaking, even holding the guitar in a similar fashion. This extends itself to the implementation of Zappa’s much incorporated hand signals, idiosyncratic humor, performing virtually with Zappa senior,[148] and reestablishing Zappa’s tradition of yearly Halloween shows[149], all of which seem an overt attempt to position the band as the ‘authentic’ article. As discussed below, although Dweezil Zappa is outspoken regarding his displeasure at the prospect of non ZFT musicians performing his father’s material, it is ironic that he himself has been a regular guest musician on tribute albums ranging from Led Zeppelin (performing Stairway To Heaven),[150] The Beatles (performing ‘Tomorrow Never Knows’),[151] Pink Floyd (Performing ‘Us and Them’),[152] Van Halen (performing ‘Unchained’),[153] and Ozzy Osborne (performing ‘Bat Head Soup’),[154] all of which further confuse the legal position presented by the ZFT.
Tribute acts such as The Grandmothers who incorporate numerous ex Zappa side men into their ensembles actually extend a process that cumulated in Zappa’s above mentioned You Can’t Do That On Stage Anymore series, by providing an environment through which virtual ensembles can be compiled. An indicative example of this is the recent American and European tour by Project Object, which proudly advertised alumni Ike Willis and Don Preston ‘together for the very first time’.[155] This is an extension not only of Zappa’s project object philosophy, but also that of conceptual continuity, as many of these musicians are from incongruent incarnations of Zappa ensembles. When asked about the perceived authenticity of ensembles with ex Zappa alumni, Don Preston commented
What you have to understand is that I have played this music in many bands over many years with many different people, including Zappa himself. When Roy [Estrada] joined the original Mothers of Invention it was like, yes – this is what this music should sound like. The music has to be played in a particular way for it to sound right, and I can’t see how you can do that without having a specific combination of people.[156]
In addition to ex alumni ensembles that recreate virtual line ups and musicians such as Palermo and Virtaperko who focus on stylistic adaptations of existing material, Sex Without Nails Bros are an indicative example of a band who sometimes attempt to recreate and adapt actual events from the Zappa archive. In addition to recent German tours of both the Roxy and Elsewhere album and one of the first stage productions of Joe’s Garage, the band also released an ‘unofficial’ DVD of the latter in 2004.[157] These events would otherwise only exist in the imagination of the fan, and therefore offer an otherwise unavailable ideological version of live performance. An additional dimension to this argument is that like ensembles such as Italian based Ossi Duri’,[158] many of these performances bridge the gap between the global and local, as performances not only take place in localized venues[159] that neither Zappa or ZPZ would perform in, but are at least partially performed in the local language. Homan considers the dialogic link as been partially attributed to the fact that tribute acts remind ‘audiences of the lack of access to the original, who [are] connected to global rather than suburban spaces and ambitions’.[160] However, research indicates that performances such as these have the potential to also reflect much more profound factors such as national identity,[161] the musicalization of everyday life,[162] and the collective identity amongst diaspora populations.[163] This is particularly important when contextualized with the Zappanale festival, which is positioned in Bad Doberan, an East German city where freedom was restricted until the fall of the Berlin Wall, with the celebration of Zappa’s music representing this liberation in musical form. This is congruent with Lipsetz’s view of music’s potential to build ‘unity between and across immigrant communities’,[164] and it is no coincidence that the festival commenced the same year as the Berlin Wall’s demise.
Conclusion: What Are The Cultural And Legal Impacts Of The ZFT Position On Copyright?
Although it was not possible to speak to anyone representing the ZFT, there does appear to be conflicting messages regarding the precise reasons for their ongoing legal sanctions. It is presently unclear whether the rationale is to ensure all ensembles pay appropriate fees for live and recorded performances, or one of quality control of the music. Gail Zappa recently stated ‘I want people to play Frank’s music,” continuing ‘Go ahead; try. Don’t hurt yourself, but just try it’.[165] She elaborated ‘I don’t really care who’s doing it, as long as they get a license’, eventually specifically verifying ‘the people I’m going after are not licensing the music’.[166] If the ZFT are not receiving income from live and recorded performance, this position appears perfectly reasonable. However, in the same interview her philosophy appears to switch to one of quality control, commenting ‘Somebody goes out there, plays music — it’s not played very well; it doesn’t sound anything like what the composer intended. And they are telling the audience that’s never heard it before that this is Frank Zappa’s music. It’s not. It’s some wretched version of it’.[167] This position is adhered to by Dweezil Zappa, who actually formed ZPZ to make a positive contribution to the misinterpretations he witnessed with tribute bands. He commented
The cover bands that attempt to do it don’t do it well because they’re changing things in the music to avoid the difficult parts. Most guitar players have a pattern-oriented mentality, and there’s nothing about Frank’s music that is pattern-oriented. It’s really hard to learn, especially if you’re learning things on guitar that were never meant to be played on guitar, like ‘Inca Roads’ and ‘St. Alfonzo’s Pancake Breakfast,’ things that were written to be played on marimba and keyboards, instruments that are laid out very differently than guitar. It required a complete physical transformation in terms of what I was capable of. I had to change my picking technique. It’s sort of like training for the Olympics.[168]
Performing Zappa’s music proficiently is indeed equivalent to competing at an Olympic games, but this statement represents a patronizing slant on what many of these tribute bands are attempting to do. How would Zappa himself have learnt his trade if his heroes Varèse and Stravinsky had asked him to stop appropriating their music into the popular music canon? How can musical ability and indeed our culture grow if we are not allowed to experience from the inside what the great masters have already achieved? Zappa was outspoken about this very process, as typified by the Central Scrutinizer character in Joe’s Garage. This album features the voice of Ike Willis as the voice of ‘Joe’, in a rock opera about the dangers of political systems that are ironically and alarmingly similar to those adopted by the ZFT. According to Miles, Zappa’s coverage of the suppression of freedom of speech in music was inspired in part by the Islamic revolution that had made music illegal within its jurisdiction at the time[169] and this is something he continued in his much publicized confrontation with the Parents Music Resource Centre.[170] It seems that the ZFT are attempting to implement precisely the type of restrictions that Zappa despised, and in doing so conflicting with his legacy. As discussed at the start of this paper, Zappa himself liberally incorporated the music of his heroes such as Ives, Stravinsky and Varèse in particular into his creative idiolect, and to restrict musicians and the public’s access to music goes against the impetus of the post modern culture we live in.
After consulting with both legal experts and the musicians who perform Zappa’s music, it appears that the litigious letters being issued by the ZFT usually have no legal standing, but it has to be acknowledged that letters from solicitors can be a nerve racking experience, especially for small businesses with little money. A recent web based article describes the current legal climate, with the ZFT sending countless cease and desist letters to ensembles they consider to be illegally performing and recording Zappa’s music, a stance that in the majority of cases is being ignored by the musicians themselves. Project Object’s Andre Cholmondeley appears convinced of the legal position, stating ‘You or I cannot record that material and sell it for money. But we can perform it’[171]. After consulting with the legal representatives within the music industry, Cholmondeley maintains that as long as venues have a blanket license,[172] there are no illegalities. Ex Zappa sideman Don Preston concurred with this opinion, vigorously reiterating
Let’s get one thing straight, it is absolutely legal to record or perform Zappa’s music. Gail’s aggressive tactics seems to scare some venues off, but from a legal point of view bands’ performing and recording the music are doing nothing wrong. In Europe as long as the venue pays their fee to the collection society, there is no problem playing the venue. The money will then work its way through to Gail.[173]
Despite the European Parliament’s recommendation that copyright in recordings is extended from 50 to 70 years, the current legal position in the UK means that Zappa’s first album Freak Out will be out of copyright by 2016, with copyright in all his compositions expiring 70 years after his death – 2063. The law states clearly that permission must be obtained from the copyright owner if recordings or compositions are to be appropriated for specific use,[174] with the industry having an expanding history of examples where inappropriate use can result in litigation.[175] However, both the rerecording and public performance of specific works are usually covered by statutory laws, in which governments have agreed fixed fees which are administered by the country specific collection societies such as the PRS/MCPS in the UK, GEMA in Germany, or BMI, ASCAP and SESAC in North America. These licenses do not include remixes of existing recordings or changes to lyrics, both of which must be cleared directly with the copyright holder.
Taking the above into account it appears that it is legal for musicians to both perform Zappa’s music and although potentially more complex, record tribute albums of his music, so this leads to the question – is the ZFT a microcosm of the entire music industry, where creativity has a tendency to be stifled by litigation and common sense becomes entangled with finance? Are the ZFT using the protection of Zappa’s legacy and the perceived lack of authenticity of tribute acts as a façade to protect themselves against competition? In 1996, a case concerning ASCAP possibly represents the pinnacle of this stupidity when they inexplicably threatened to sue the Girl Scouts for singing around the camp fire. To quote Lessig – ‘there was “value” (the songs) so there must have been a “right” – even against the girl scouts’.[176] Although ASCAP eventually realized that their initial proposition of licensing music to the American Camping Association for $1,200 per season per camp would be the cause of public outrage, it is indicative of how commerce can make even a large public body oblivious to common sense and the value of non commercial creativity. Although one would like to think of copyright protection’s existence to quite rightly protect the intellectual property rights of composers against a generation of consumers, many of whom consider recorded music to be free, against infringement, the unfortunate fact is the rights owned by publishing houses and record companies are now considered more important than facilitating artists to creatively build upon their culture. As indicated by Lessig, Walt Disney is an indicative example of how the liberal use of the culture of the day can to quote Disney himself, create ‘something new’.[177] When incorporating the emerging synchronized sound technology of the day as pioneered in The Jazz Singer with a parodied narrative of Buster Keaton’s Steamboat Bill, Jr, Disney adapted Steamboat Willie – a unique combination of sound, music and animation. Interestingly, Steamboat Bill, Jr is itself an adaptation of the song ‘Steamboat Bill’, but it is through Steamboat Willie that Disney received the inspiration that resulted in Micky Mouse.[178] Lessig continues to account how Disney and the industry at large of the day was constantly ‘parroting the feature – length mainstream films of the day’, with their success being considered as ‘the brilliance of the differences’, eventually ‘creating something new out of something barely old’.[179] In an article addressing the illegalities of the music industry, Frith concludes that copying in popular music is ‘normal’, claiming that the litigation cases in the music industry are always financial, never ethical.[180] He proceeds to cite examples of ‘plagiarism’ in early jazz standards and sampling in hip hop as music forms that creatively use ‘existing tunes or phrases as the basis of new compositions’, stating that when ‘Grandmaster Flash turned turntable into musical instrument’ he was ‘continuing a black musical tradition, not transforming it’.[181] As indicated above, Zappa himself made much use of quotation as a form of humor, parody or irony, practices that eventually became part of his musical idiolect. Can it be considered reasonable that the ZFT can either prevent these activities or demand potentially unreasonable fees? If the music industry had adopted a similar prohibitive stance during the 1950’s – 1960’s when white cover versions and pastiche ensembles were pervasive,[182] would the inadvertent dissemination of Black R & B to middle class America have been prohibited, resulting in a world where cultural icons such as Little Richard, John Lee Hooker or BB King were resigned to the history books? This is a concerning point of consideration when considering Frank Zappa’s long term legacy.
Olli Virtaperko outlines the potential reality of the ongoing conflict between the ZFT and the artists performing Zappa’s music perfectly, stating ‘If less Zappa is being played, less potentially interesting approaches and interpretations are introduced. In the long run that may turn out to be a negative thing’. [183] If Zappa’s music is to continue as an ongoing relevant tradition, then it is essential that his music is allowed to flourish in a free society, where musicians and audiences are allowed to build upon and partake in that tradition. As the copyright holders, the ZFT must of course be respected for quality controlling the Zappa catalogue and paid any royalties due, but to quote Virtaperko once again – ‘The more people put their time, energy and creativity to enrich that tradition, the stronger and more vital it becomes. Why would Zappa be any different?’[184]
Although the ZFT refute it was actually said by him personally, Zappa’s record label left a message for his fans at the time of his death read by his daughter Moon Unit which stated ‘Just play his music if you’re a musician. And otherwise, play his music anyway. That will be enough for him’.[185] As a musician who was already on the periphery of public consciousness when he was with us, it seems logical that the celebration of Zappa’s music through the artists discussed in this paper and festivals such as Zappanale can only assist in keeping his memory alive. Although it is absolutely essential that this is done legally, one has to ask the question that if a copyright holder did get the power that ZFT request, would it be possible to restrict bands such as That Handsome Devil and to a lesser extent Primus who are overtly influenced by him? Zappa own words reiterated that the main ‘goal’ for ‘a composer is to just hear what it was that you wrote,’ because you like to listen to music, as well as write it. That’s always been the main thrill for me, is to come up with a musical idea and have it performed some way, and I’m especially thrilled if it’s performed correctly’.[186] The bands and ensembles working with Zappa’s music are attempting to fulfill that wish, and as outlined by Chapple when discussing the use of Shakespeare as a creative source over the centuries, the adaptation, appropriation and remediation of the author’s work has enabled creative forces ranging from Nikolai Leskov [187] to Dmitri Shostakovich [188] to create ‘original’ works inspired by the man who Alexander Pushkin entitled ‘Father Shakespeare’.[189] This process not only continues the legacy of the artist, but according to Chapple also the ‘education of those who read or participated in the performance or manifestation of the adaptation’.[190] If Zappa’s music is to remain culturally relevant in the years to come, it is essential that a legal and sensible compromise is reached regarding the use of his intellectual property. That is the only way his music will receive the longevity it deserves.
[1] The Mothers of Invention, Freak Out (Verve, 5005, 1966).
[2] Frank Zappa, Civilization Phaze III (Barking Pumpkin, 1, 1995).
[3] Zappa pioneered the independent artist release in the late 1960’s with his Straight and Bizarre labels. He later founded the Zappa, Discreet and Barkin Pumpkin imprints. Bizarre was actually originally formed as a production company after his record label (Verve) missed the deadline to renew his contract. Going on to release iconic Zappa recordings such as Uncle Meat (1969), Hot Rats (1969), and the The Grand Wazoo (1973), this established the formula for the artistic freedom Zappa became accustomed to.
[4] Neil Slaven, Electric Don Quixote (Omnibus Press, 2003), p.121.
[5] Frank Zappa and Peter Occhiogrosso, The Real Frank Zappa Book, 1990, p. 139.
[6] Frank Zappa, Them or Us (EMI, 2402343, 1984).
[7] Frank Zappa, Francesco Zappa (Barking Pumpkin, 74202, 1982).
[8] Frank Zappa, The Perfect Stranger (Barking Pumpkin, 38170, 1984).
[9] Frank Zappa, Overnite Sensation (Discreet, 02149, 1973).
[10] Frank Zappa, Apostrophe (Discreet, DS4-2175, 1974).
[11] Frank Zappa, FZ:OZ (Vaulternative, 2002).
[12] Frank Zappa, Roxy and Elsewhere (Discreet, DSS-2202, 1974).
[13] For example ‘The Duke Of Prunes’ and ‘Call Any Vegetable’ (Absolutely Free 1967), ‘Mr Green Genes’ (Uncle Meat 1969), ‘Peaches and Regalia’ (Hot Rats 1969).
[14] ‘Jewish Princess’ (Sheik Yerbouti 1979), ‘Catholic Girls’ (Joe’s Garage 1979), ‘Jesus Thinks You’re a Jerk’ (Broadway The Hard Way 1988), ‘The Meet Shall Inherit Nothing’ (You Are What You Is 1981)
[15] ‘Dickies Such An Arsehole’ (Broadway The Hard Way 1988), ‘Welcome To The United States’ (The Yellow Shark 1992), ‘Brown Shoes Don’t Make It”’(Absolutely Free 1967).
[16] ‘Sex’ (Man From Utopia 1983 ), ‘G Spot Tornado’ (Jazz From Hell 1976), ‘I Have Been In You’ (Sheik Yerbouti 1979).
[17] The Mothers of Invention, Cruising With Ruben And The Jets (Verve, 5055, 1968)
[18] The Mothers of Invention, We’re Only In It For The Money (Verve, 5045, 1968)
[19] Entitled The Making of Freak Out!: Project/Object (2006), this album was not available in its original format due to censorship reasons (For example the first two lines of ‘Help I’m A Rock’ and ‘It Can’t Happen Here’ were removed because they were deemed to be drug references).
[20] Collectively entitled Lumpy Money (2008).
[21] Tracks 4 – 9 of the CD version of the album compile a complete virtual performance of “King Kong”, recorded in the studio and at various live venues.
[22] An extended piece lasting over eighteen minutes that is compiled from various live performances, with sections consisting of themes reworked over many years. The piece was eventually condensed and rearranged for the Fillmore East album (1971).
[23] Throughout Zappa’s career he made a concerted attempt to relate the various aspects of his work into a conceptual whole. This was achieved by reusing thematic material from recordings, album covers and videos as a compositional and philosophical tool . The term was first used on the album Lumpy Gravy (1967). For a thorough discussion of how this technique was employed in “The Black Page”, please refer to Borders (2000).
[24] Sleeve notes from Frank Zappa, You Can’t Do That On Stage Anymore Volume 4 (Rycodisc, RCD, 10087/88, 1991)
[25] Meaning ‘Alien Time’.
[26] Frank Zappa, Joe’s Garage: Act 1 (Zappa, 1603, 1979) and Frank Zappa, Joe’s Garage: Acts 2 & 3 (Zappa, SRZ-2-1502, 1979).
[27] Captain Beefheart, Trout Mask Replica (Straight, STS-1053, 1969).
[28] Frank Zappa, Sheik Yerbouti (Zappa, SRZ-2-1501, 1979).
[29] Taken from sleeve notes of Sheik Yerbouti.
[30] Frank Zappa, Zoot Allures (Warner Bros, 56298, 1976).
[31] Frank Zappa, Sleep Dirt (Discreet, DSK-2292, 1979).
[32] Minor & Shaw (1880).
[33] Frank Zappa, London Symphony Orchestra Vol. 1&2 (Barkin Pumpkin, 74204, 1987).
[34] Entitled ‘Prologue’ from Ahead Of Their Time (1993)), ‘The Rejected Mexican Pope Leaves The Stage’, and ‘Undaunted, the Band Plays On’.
[35] ‘Semi-fraudulent/Direct-From-Hollywood Overture’ , ‘Touring Can Make You Crazy’, ‘Redneck Eats’, ‘Centreville’, ‘This Town Is A Sealed Tuna Sandwich (Prologue)’, ‘This Town Is A Sealed Tuna Sandwich (Reprise)’, ‘The Sealed Tuna Bolero’, ‘Dance Of The Just Plain Folks’.
[36] The Mothers of Invention, Burnt Weeny Sandwich (Bizarre, RS-6370, 1970).
[37] Frank Zappa, Orchestral Favorites (Discreet, DSK-2294, 1976).
[38] This piece was originally written in orchestral form for the film Run Home Slow (1965), before being translated with lyrics for Absolutely Free (1967). It later appeared on Mothermania (1969) in extended form. During the 1970’s Zappa arranged a jazz rock version of the piece on Orchestral Favourites (1976).
[39] Although first appearing on Studio Tan (1978), this piece was regularly played by Zappa’s Wazzo Orchestra during the early 70’s, finally being released in its original four movement format on Wazzo (2007). An extended version of the piece was also released by The Ensemble Modern on Greggery Peccary & Other Persuasions: The Ensemble Modern Plays Frank Zappa (2002).
[40] Frank Zappa, Uncle Meat (Bizarre, MS-2024, 1969)
[41] Taken from the sleeve notes of Frank Zappa, The Yellow Shark (Barking Pumpkin, 71600, 1993)
[42] Named as either “Pound For A Brown (On The Bus)” or “Pound For A Brown”.
[43] Frank Zappa, You Can’t Do That On Stage Anymore Volume 5 (Rycodisc, RCD, 10089/92, 1991)
[44] Frank Zappa, Electric Aunt Jemima (Rhino, R2-71019, 1992) Recorded in Denver, May 3rd 1968.
[45] The Mothers of Invention, Ahead Of Their Time (Barking Pumpkin, 74246, 1968). Recorded at the Royal Albert Hall, October 1968.
[46] Recorded in 1978.
[47] Recorded in 1992.
[48] Which is colloquially entitled ‘browning’.
[49] ‘Pound’ as opposed to ‘Golden Arches’.
[50] David Walley, No Commercial Potential, 1996, p. 8.
[51] Sheik Yerbouti 1979.
[52] The ‘Nocturne’ from his Firebird Suite, while the backing vocal line is reminiscent of the opening bassoon line from The Rite Of Spring.
[53] The Mothers of Invention, Absolutely Free (Verve, V-5013, 1967)
[54] Ibid. The piece ends with the introduction of Stravinsky’s ‘March’ from A Soldiers Tale.
[55] Ibid. The opening sequence of Petrouchka is quoted in the middle section.
[56] Crusin’ With Ruben and the Jets 1967. The backing vocals towards the end outline the opening melody of The Rite Of Spring.
[57] Absolutely Free 1967 . start of the saxophone solo quotes ‘The Bringer Of Jollity’ from The Planets Suite.
[58] Frank Zappa, Weasels ripped my flesh (Reprise, 2028, 1969).
[59] Frank Zappa, The Weasel Acetate (Bootleg, 1969).
[60] Frank Zappa, Uncle Meat (Honker Home Video, 1987).
[61] Cahn, Van Heusen.
[62] Found at the end of ‘Wowie Zowie’ (Freak Out 1966).
[63] This piece can be found quoted numerous times throughout Zappa’s career. Indicative examples include ‘The Return of the Son of Monster Magnet’ (Freak Out 1966) at around 7:30; ‘Plastic People’ (Absolutely Free 1967), which is obviously based on the song harmonically and melodically; ‘Florentine Pogen’ (One Size Fits All 1975), at around 3:07; ‘Jesus Thinks You’re a Jerk’ (Broadway the Hardway 1989) at around 8:15, ‘Welcome to the United States’ (Yellow Shark 1993), at around 5:30.
[64] Frank Zappa, 20 Years Of Frank Zappa – The Cucamonga Era (Bootleg, 1981)
[65] Emmett 1859.
[66] The Penguins 1954.
[67] Tony Allen and the Champs 1955.
[68] Refer to ‘Hello Muddah, Hello Faddah – A Letter From Camp’ (Rhino Hi-Five 2006) (based on Pontichelli’s Dance of the Hours) and ‘Hungarian Goulash No.5’ (My Son The Nut 1963) (based on Brahams’ Hungarian Dance No. 5) for indicative examples.
[69] For example “Comedy in Music (Part 2)” from Live (1992).
[70] For example his “Piano Concerto Number 2” (Comedy in Music 1995),
[71] Victor Borge, Comedy In Music (Columbia Special Products, 75007, 1995)
[72] Ibid.
[73] Refer to http://encyclopedia.stateuniversity.com/pages/22998/Victor-Borge.html for more details
[74] Zappa and Occhiogrosso, p. 172.
[75] We’re Only In It For The Money 1967.
[76] Frank Zappa, The Man From Utopia (Barking Pumpkin, 74245, 1983).
[77] Civilization Phase 3 1993. At Around 2:01 to the end of the piece for the former and around 0:05 in the latter.
[78] Spike Jones, (Not) Your Standard Spike Jones Collection (RCA, B000002WF6, 1975).
[79] 20 Years of Frank Zappa: The Cucamonga Era 1981.The sound is heard throughout the first piece and at around 0.49 of the latter. On the subject of Zappa’s pre Mothers of Invention work on this album, works such as ‘Hey Nelda’ and ‘Surf Along’ can be considered ‘authentic’ novelty pieces, with no musical complexities. These pieces also appear to forge a crucial link to Zappa’s later work with Flo and Eddie, with other pre Mothers of Invention novelty pieces such as ‘Dear Jeepers’, having very similar comedic voices to ‘Bwana Dic’ and in particular ‘Do You Like My New Car’ (Fillmore East: June 1971).
[80] Burnt Weeny Sandwich 1970. From around 1:08.
[81] Frank Zappa, The Grand Wazzo (Bizzare, MS-2093, 1973).
[82] By The Hustlers (On Loony Tunes 1976).
[83] By The Coasters (On Loony Tunes 1976).
[84] Freak Out 1966.
[85] Studio Tan 1978.
[86] By Ernie K Doe (On Loony Tunes 1976). Note the close melodic similarities and bass timbre.
[87] By David Seville (On Loony Tunes 1976). Note the similarities to the voice of Greggery Peccary.
[88] Frank Zappa, Thing Fish (Barking Pumpkin, 74201, 1984).
[89] This comparison is discussed in more detail in Carr & Hand (2007).
[90] For example ‘Galoot Up-Date’ uses the backing track of ‘The Blue Light’ (Tinsel Town Rebellion 1981), ‘Mudd Club’ is directly imported from You Are What You Is (1983), while the synclavier based ‘That Evil Prince’ was to eventually emerge in orchestral form as ‘Amnerika’ on Zappa’s final recording Civilization Phase III (1993).
[91] Steve Jones, Who Fought The Law? The American Music Industry and the Global Popular Music Market, in Tony Bennett, Rock and Popular Music (Routledge, 1993), p. 91.
[92] Paul Carr and Richard Hand, ‘Frank Zappa and musical Theatre: ugly ugly o’phan Annie and really deep intense, thought-provoking Broadway symbolism’, Studies in Musical Theatre, 1 (2007).
[93] Although this is a term both I and many others are uncomfortable with. For the purpose of this paper ‘tribute bands and ensembles ‘will be used to describe a collective of musicians who engage in performing Zappa’s music.
[94] Which has performed several concerts with Ike Willis, with Napoleon Murphy Brock been a permanent member since 1999.
[95] Formed in 1980 by Bunk Gardiner, Don Preston and Jimmy Carl Black and has included performances with Napoleon Murphy Brock and Roy Estrada.
[96] Featuring the late Jimmy Carl Black.
[97] Featuring Ike Willis and Don Preston.
[98] Featuring Ike Willis.
[99] Featuring Tommy Mars, Bruce Fowler, Ike Willis and Robert Martin.
[100] This practice is also prevalent with other tribute acts. Refer to Homan (p. 99).
[101] Omnibus Wind Ensemble, Music By Frank Zappa (2005: CD 19403).
[102] Ensemble Ambrosius, The Zappa Album (BIS/Northern Lights, BIS-NL-CD-5013, 2000).
[103] Le concert impromptu & Rossini , Plays Frank Zappa (L’Empreinte Digitale, 2002).
[104] Omnibus Wind Ensemble, From Mozart To Zappa (Opus 3, 1995).
[105] Slaven, p. 82.
[106] Zappa and Occhiogrosso, p. 352.
[107] Palermo, in correspondence with the author, May 2009.
[108] Palermo, in correspondence with the author, May 2009.
[109] Chris Richards, in Shane Homan, Access all eras (McGraw-Hill International, 2006), p.116.
[110] The Ed Palermo Big Band, Plays The Music Of Frank Zappa (Astor Place Records, B00005EGN, 1997).
[111] The Ed Palermo Big Band, Eddy Loves Frank (Cuneiform, Rune 285, 2009).
[112] Ibid.
[113] Although different arrangements, this composition was also recorded by the Ensemble Modern (2002), Ensemble Ambrosius (2000) and live with Steve Via et el on Zappa’s Universe (1993).
[114] Virtaperko, in correspondence with author, April 2009.
[115] Homan, p. 4.
[116] Aside from the ‘Sofa’, all of the key centres of The Zappa Album are transposed. It has to be noted however that the key centres of authentic baroque was lower than that of post equal temperament A=440, a factor that when combined with the idiosyncratic traits of the instruments (such as the animal gut of a baroque cello), makes the music more ‘relaxed’ according to Virtaperko. (http://www.ensembleambrosius.com/zappa_arranging_comments.html).
[117] Selected works such as ‘Uncle Meat’ are slowed down, a factor which assists the stylistic authenticity of baroque.
[118] ‘The Orange Country Lumber Truck’ is based on the last 55 seconds of Zappa’s ‘Son of Orange Country’ (Roxy and Elsewhere 1974). The name change was at the request of Gail Zappa.
[119] Entitled Enegale.
[120] Refer to http://www.ensembleambrosius.com/zappa_arranging_comments.html
[121] Interestingly, this practice is accentuated even further on the Omnibus Wind Ensemble version of the piece.
[122] Heuser, in correspondence with the author, April 2009.
[123] Who are sponsored by the Austrian government.
[124] Creek, in correspondence with author, April 2009.
[125] Zappa appeared on the With Mary radio show on the 11th June 1975 for an extensive interview. The full interview is available online at http://concerts.wolfgangsvault.com/dt/frank-zappa-interview/20051491-2431.html (accessed 16th of July 2009).
[126] Ibid.
[127] Ibid.
[128] Musicians such as Coleman Hawkins, Stan Getz and Jimmy Raney actually moved to Europe.
[129] Homan, p. 2.
[130] Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and simulation (University of Michigan Press, 1994), p. 164.
[131] Baudrillard, p. 79.
[132] Angela McRobbie, Postmodernism and popular culture (Routledge, 1994), p. 147.
[133] Malcolm Waters, Modernity: After modernity (Taylor & Francis, 1999), p. 73.
[134] Philip N. Cooke, Back to the future (Routledge, 1990), p. 109.
[135] E. Ann Kaplan, Rocking around the clock (Taylor & Francis, 1987), p. 47.
[136] Fredric Jameson, The cultural turn (Verso, 1998), pp. 4-5.
[137] Baudrillard, p. 12.
[138] Michaël W. Smith, Reading simulacra (SUNY Press, 2001), p. 7.
[139] Scott Lash, Sociology of postmodernism (Routledge, 1990), p. 24.
[140] Discuss more after attending Zappanale.
[141] Simon Frith and Andrew Goodwin, On record (Routledge, 1990), p. 269.
[142] Frith and Goodwin, p. 269.
[143] Andrew E. Benjamin, Walter Benjamin and art (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005), p. 167.
[144] Albin Zak, The poetics of rock (University of California Press, 2001), p. 20.
[145] What he entitled ‘object’.
[146] Which he defined as an ongoing ‘project’.
[147] Outlaw, in correspondence with the author, July 2009.
[148] Via a video backdrop.
[149] Interestingly, with was preceded by the unofficial Zapperween concerts implemented by Bogus Pomp.
[150] Various Artists, Led Box – The Ultimate Led Zeppelin Tribute (Deadline Music, 2008).
[151] Various Artists, Abbey Road: A Tribute To The Beatles (Cleopatra Records, 2009).
[152] Various Artists, Return To The Dark Side Of The Moon: A Tribute To Pink Floyd (Purple Pyramid, 2006).
[153] Various Artists, Van Halen Tribute: Hot For Remixes (Cleopatra, B000028EZQ, 1999).
[154] Various Artists, Bat Head Soup: A Tribute to Ozzy (Cleopatra, BOOOO4VVW!, 2000).
[155] http://projectobject.com/index.html
[156] Preston, in correspondence with the author, June 2009.
[157] Joe’s Garage – Da Musical. See http://www.united-mutations.com/s/sex_without_nails_bros_dvd.htm for details.
[158] Who else?
[159] As discussed earlier, often with ex Zappa sidemen.
[160] Homan, p. 72.
[161] Refer to Ian D. Biddle and Vanessa Knights, Music, national identity and the politics of location (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2007).
[162] Refer to Barry Shank, Dissonant identities (Wesleyan University Press, 1994).
[163] Sheila Whiteley, Andy Bennett and Stan Hawkins, Music, space and place (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2005), p. 4.
[164] George Lipsitz, Dangerous Crossroads (Verso, 1994), p. 126.
[165] http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102907874
[166] Ibid.
[167] Ibid.
[168] http://www.stereophile.com/musicrecordings/1108zap/index.html
[169] Barry Miles, Zappa (Grove Press, 2005), p. 277.
[170] See Zappa & Occhiiogrosso (pp.261-278) for a detailed discussion by Zappa himself regarding the dangers of centrally controlled music lobby groups that attempt to control what the public listen to.
[171] http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102907874
[172] Obtained by ASCAP in America and the PRS in the UK.
[173] Preston, in correspondence with the author ,July 2009.
[174] For example political views that the composer does not agree with.
[175] Refer to Simon Frith, Illegalities And The Music Industry,in,Michael Talbot, The business of music (Liverpool University Press, 2002), p. 320.
[176] Lawrence Lessig, Free culture (Penguin Press, 2004), p.18.
[177] Lessig, p. 22.
[178] Lessig, p. 23.
[179] Lessig, p. 23..
[180] Frith, in Talbot, p. 204
[181] Frith, in Talbot, p. 205.
[182] Through artists ranging from Pat Boone, to The Beatles and The Rolling Stones.
[183] Virtaperko, in correspondence with the author, April 2009.
[184] Ibid.
[185] Refer to http://projectobject.com/index.html for the full text.
[186] Joel Rose, ‘Frank Zappa: A ‘Lumpy’ Legacy : NPR’, 2009 <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=102907874> [accessed 30 July 2009].
[187] His novella A Lady Macbeth of the Mtsensk District (1865).
[188] His opera Lady Macbeth of the Mrsensk (1934).
[189] Freda Chapple, ‘Adaptation As Education: A Lady Macbeth Of The Mtsensk District’, Adaptation In Film And Performance, 1 (2007), 17-31.
[190] Ibid. p.17.
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